Detection of patent ductus arteriosus using photoplethysmography

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems are described for detecting the likelihood of patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in an infant using electrocardiogram and photoplethysmographic pulse signals obtained from the upper body and foot of the infant.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 62/042,823, filed on Aug. 28, 2014, and of U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/134,619, filed on Mar. 18, 2015,the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Throughout this application various publications are referred to inparentheses. Full citations for these references may be found at the endof the specification. The disclosures of these publications are herebyincorporated by reference in their entirety into the subject applicationto more fully describe the art to which the subject invention pertains.

Patent ductus arterious (PDA) is a common problem causing significantmorbidity and mortality in preterm infants. The ductus arteriosus is ablood vessel that connects the aorta and pulmonary artery and plays animportant role in fetal life. In full term newborn infants, the ductusarteriosus constricts by 24 to 48 hours of life. However, in preterminfants, the ductus arteriosus often remains patent. Persistent patentductus arteriosus is a common problem with rates of 40-55% encounteredin preterm infants <29 weeks gestation (McNamara and Sehgal 2007). A PDAwith a significant left to right shunting can lead to increased neonatalmorbidity such as respiratory distress, cardiac failure, low bloodpressure, and decreased peripheral organ perfusion, and leads to anincreased incidence of intraventricular hemorrhage, necrotizingenterocolitis and chronic lung disease (Sehgal and McNamara 2012). Theimportant aspect of assessment of a PDA is whether the degree of left toright shunting across the PDA is of hemodynamic significance and willtherefore require treatment (Evans et al. 2012b). Assessment of thesignificance of the ductal flow is challenging. The amount oftransductal flow between the descending aorta and the pulmonary arteryis dependent not only on the ductal diameter but also on the differencebetween the systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance (McNamara andSehgal 2007). The physiologic effects include increased systemic topulmonary blood flow during systole and reversal of normal aortic flowduring diastole called ductal steal. The combination of ductal steal andlow diastolic pressure results in regional hypoperfusion (Noori 2010,Evans et al. 2012a). Diastolic ductal steal phenomenon is seen inhemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus (HSDA) and resolvesafter ductal closure (Evans et al. 2012a). Symptomatic shunting througha PDA has been associated with worse respiratory outcomes (Evans 1995).

The current clinical evaluations, electrocardiogram (ECG) and chestX-ray (CXR) findings, are neither accurate nor specific. Dopplerechocardiography has proved to be better than clinical examination ingrading PDAs (McNamara and Sehgal 2007). It is unlikely that optimumtiming of therapeutic intervention may be predicted by postnatal age, asthe determinants of a hemodynamically significant ductal shunt includetransductal resistance and physiological modifiers. The difficulty inprecisely separating the pathological ductus arteriosus from theinnocent ductus arteriosus may be due to the lack of scientific evidenceof benefit or causality (McNamara and Sehgal 2007, Sehgal and McNamara2012). The ensuing effect is medical ambiguity and an unending disputeof whether these neonates have to be treated, the optimum timing oftreatment and implications to when intervention is most effective. Thenature of the confusion is thought to relate to limitations and /ordelays in appraisal of ductal significance (Sehgal and McNamara 2012).Trials to date have focused on time, method and duration of interventionbut not to scale the hemodynamic significance. The conventional guide bywhich ductal significance has been ascertained is transductal diameterbut this might not imply significance in some situations.

Recent literature has questioned the beneficial effects of therapeuticintervention. The reasons for this apparent lack of effect may relate toa lack of relationship of a HSDA to neonatal outcomes due to inaccurateassignment of hemodynamic significance. Other than clinical parametersand echocardiographic evaluation, there are no other non-invasiveclinical tools to help assess this common but difficult diagnosticentity from a therapeutic standpoint.

Echocardiographic evaluation has been considered the gold standard fordiagnosis of a patent ductus arteriosus, but quantifying the size ofductal flow which leads to negative consequences remains a problem(McNamara and Sehgal 2007, Evans et al. 2012a). The decision to treat isbased on echocardiographic documentation of a left to right transductalshunt with quantifiable hemodynamic effects leading to clinicalinstability. The current definition of HSDA is not adequate since it isentirely reliant on size (McNamara and Sehgal 2007). A transductaldiameter of >1.5 mm has been proposed as significant since data from asmall study with a sample size of 50 suggest that beyond this cut-off,end organ hypoperfusion occurs (Kluckow and Evans 1995, Evans 1995).This definition is incomplete because it does not take intoconsideration the maturational status of the patient and otherbiological factors that may account for unpredictability in clinicalpresentation. The lack of a uniform approach is a key hindrance towardsbetter comprehension of the clinical effect of a patent ductus.

Description of the transductal flow pattern and direction are importantin directing treatment decisions. However, flow indicators have a lowerpredictive value for therapeutic interventions because apart from ductaldiameter, flow is dependent on the relative systemic and pulmonaryvascular resistance which are highly variable in preterm infants withrespiratory problems. In neonates with pulmonary hypertension, ductalflow is either pure right to left when pulmonary arterial pressure issuprasystemic or bidirectional (right to left during systole and left toright during diastole when it is equal to systemic arterial pressure).Prior studies have demonstrated the duct as closing/restrictive orunrestrictive and pulsatile according to pulse wave Doppler flowpatterns. A HSDA will have a large left to right with pulsatile flowpattern and peak velocity at end systole. The peak velocity at the enddiastole is usually very low. This implies that the relative pulmonaryand aortic pressures are equal at the end of diastole. The peak systolicvelocity is usually less than 1.5 m/s when the ductus is unrestrictive.As the ductus constricts, flow velocity increases as blood acceleratesacross a narrower vessel leading to a reduction in the peaksystolic/diastolic ratio. Computing the volume of transductal flow wouldoffer the most precise assessment of hemodynamic compromise. However,the calculation is not practical with conventional two dimensionaltechniques due to ductal tortuosity, changes in the transductal diameteracross it course and the turbulent rather than laminar nature of flow.

Other echocardiographic parameters have been used to assess the amountof pulmonary blood flow. There are no direct measures of increasedpulmonary blood flow; however, left heart size and flow are usefulsurrogate determinants of the magnitude of flow and its impact. The LeftAtrial/Aorta (LA/AO) ratio has been used in several studies to evaluatethe significance of ductal shunting. Evans and Iyer (1995) showed that aLA/AO ratio of >1.4 is suggestive of a HSDA. This ratio derived usingM-mode imaging from a long axis approach is the most well recognizedsurrogate of ductal significance and was first described by Silverman etal. in 1974. Independently these markers have poor sensitivity andspecificity, which may be related to a number of factors. These includepatient related factors such as hydration, left ventricle performance ortransatrial shunt and operator dependent factors, which may lead to overor underestimation of these single dimensional measurements (Evans etal. 2012a).

Newer echocardiographic assessment to determine a clinically significantPDA have been to profile the pulmonary artery flow pattern, left heartflow quantification, left ventricular output, LVO/SVC ratio and flowvelocity in the LPA, all of which have been studied using small samplesize (El Hajjar et al. 2005). Pulmonary artery flow is typically laminarand exclusively systolic with maximum velocity of about 1.5 m/s. Thepresence of HSDA leads to diastolic flow in the main and branchpulmonary arteries with a turbulent systolic pattern. The magnitude ofdiastolic flow in the main and left branch pulmonary artery correlateswell with the magnitude of left to right shunt, but these studies do notaddress the clinical impact of this finding (Evans et al. 2012a,b).Quantification of pulmonary venous flow may provide the best measure ofpulmonary overcirculation; however, accurate estimation of flow ischallenging due to the tortuosity of the veins and variability of flowbetween the veins (Evans et al. 2012a).

Previous approaches for detection of PDA remain unsatisfactory. Vitalsigns and physical examination are neither sensitive nor specific fordetection of PDA and echocardiography, although non-invasive, isdisruptive to the patient, expensive, and only describes the status ofthe ductus at one point in time. This leaves the clinician withuncertainty about ductal shunting between echocardiograms.

Photoplethymography (PPG) is an easy and inexpensive optical techniquethat can be used to detect change in blood volume in the microvascularbed of tissue. It is frequently utilized to make non-invasivemeasurements at the skin surface. In photoplethysmography, the emittedlight passes through the skin and is reflected, absorbed, and scatteredby the tissue and blood (Sahni 2012). The amount of the modulatedtransmitted or reflected light that reaches the photodetector ismeasured, and the changes in the photodetector current are presumed tobe due to blood volume changes underneath the probe. The systolicincrease in the arterial blood pressure is accompanied by an increase inarterial blood volume resulting in reduced light transmission (Nitzan etal. 2009). These variations are electronically amplified and recorded asa voltage signal called the photoplethysmograph (Sahni 2012). The PPGwaveform comprises a physiological waveform attributed to cardiacsynchronous changes in the peripheral blood volume with each heart beatand is superimposed on a varying baseline with various lower frequencycomponents such as respiration, sympathetic nervous system andthermoregulation. Changes in the pulse shape characteristics can yieldvaluable diagnostic information about the cardiovascular system. PPG hasbeen experimentally used to assess the viscoelastic properties of bloodvessels including the volume elastic modulus of finger arteries, whichis the arterial pulse pressure related to PPG volume change at specifictransmural pressures (Elgendi 2012, Allen 2007). PPG has been used tocalculate pulse wave phases, and the difference between the right handand left foot phases has been reported to correlate with PDA in a groupof 56 subjects (Goudjil et al. 2014). Oishi et al. (1993) reportedmonitoring neonatal peripheral circulation byelectrocardiogram-to-oximeter pulse velocity in three subjects withdifferent clinical conditions.

The present invention addresses the need for improved methods andapparatus for detecting patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) and monitoringductus closure in newborns using photoplethysmographic measurements.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides methods for detecting the likelihood ofpatent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in an infant comprising a) obtaining orreceiving electrocardiogram (ECG) signals from the infant; b) obtainingor receiving photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals from a site on theupper body (UB) of the infant, and optionally from a foot (F) of theinfant; c) determining, for each PPG pulse the PPG pulse amplitude (AM)between the end-diastolic maximum and the following minimum of systolicdecrease for the UB PPG pulses; d) determining the mean of one or moreof the following parameters for a plurality of the PPG pulses in theselected section: (i) a relative pulse amplitude (rAM) by dividing theAM by the systolic decrease minimum to obtain a rAM for the upper body(rAM-UB) PPG pulses; (ii) a pulse transit time (PTT-UB) between an Rwave of the ECG and the onset of systolic decrease for the correspondingUB PPG pulse; (iii) a ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB between the pulse transit time(PTT-UB) and the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) PPG pulse;(iv) a ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB between the relative pulse amplitude for theUB (rAM-UB) PPG pulse and the pulse transit time (PTT-UB); (v) a pulsetransit time (PTT-F) between an R wave of the ECG and the onset ofsystolic decrease for the corresponding F PPG pulse; and (vi) a timedelay (TD) between the onset of systolic decrease for the UB PPG pulseand the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding F PPG pulse;and e) detecting the likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) inthe infant if one or more of: the relative pulse amplitude for the UB(rAM-UB) is elevated above normal, the pulse transit time (PTT-UB) isdecreased below normal; the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB is decreased belownormal, the ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated above normal, the pulsetransit time (PTT-F) is decreased below normal; or the time delay (TD)of PPG pulses between the UB and F is elevated above normal.

The invention also provides systems for detecting the likelihood ofpatent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in an infant comprising aphotoplethysmograph, one or more computing devices comprising one ormore processors, a memory unit, a display device, and acomputer-readable storage medium including computer-readable code thatis read by the one or more processors to perform the method describedabove.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A. Examples of raw, unsmoothed photoplethysmographic (PPG) curvesfrom an infant with PDA.

FIG. 1B. PPG curves from FIG. 1A after two smoothings.

FIG. 2. Examples of photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals for the hand (H)and foot (F) and electrocardiogram (ECG) signals over time (t). PPGpulse amplitude (AM) is illustrated as the difference between theend-diastolic maximum and minimum of the systolic decrease of the pulse.The pulse transit time (PTT) is illustrated between an R wave of the ECGand the onset of the systolic decrease for the corresponding PPG pulsefor the hand (PTT-h) and foot (PTT-f), as is the time delay betweensignals recorded at the hand and foot (f-hTD).

FIG. 3A. Boxplot distribution of time delay (msec) between PPG signalsrecorded at the hand and foot when the ductus arterious is patent orclosed, p=0.03. Outlier values not included in the means are shown asopen circles.

FIG. 3B. Boxplot distribution of relative pulse ampliude recorded at thehand when the ductus arterious is patent or closed, p=0.03. Outliervalue not included in the mean is shown as an open circle.

FIG. 3C. Boxplot distribution of pulse transit time (msec) recorded atthe hand when the ductus arterious is patent or closed, p=0.01. Outliervalue not included in the mean is shown as an open circle.

FIG. 3D. Boxplot distribution of pulse transit time (msec) recorded atthe foot when the ductus arterious is patent or closed, p=0.03. Outliervalue not included in the mean is shown as an open circle.

FIG. 3E. Boxplot distribution of the ratio of the pulse transit time(msec) recorded at the hand to the relative pulse ampliude recorded atthe hand when the ductus arterious is patent or closed, p=0.03. Outliervalues not included in the mean are shown as open circles.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides a method for detecting the likelihood of a patentductus arteriosus (PDA) in an infant comprising:

a) obtaining or receiving electrocardiogram (ECG) signals from theinfant;

b) obtaining or receiving photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals from asite on the upper body (UB) of the infant, and optionally from a foot(F) of the infant;

c) determining, for each PPG pulse the PPG pulse amplitude (AM) betweenthe end-diastolic maximum and the following minimum of systolic decreasefor the UB PPG pulses;

d) determining the mean of one or more of the following parameters for aplurality of the PPG pulses in the selected section:

-   -   (i) a relative pulse amplitude (rAM) by dividing the AM by the        systolic decrease minimum to obtain a rAM for the upper body        (rAM-UB) PPG pulses;    -   (ii) a pulse transit time (PTT-UB) between an R wave of the ECG        and the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding UB PPG        pulse;    -   (iii) a ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB between the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB) and the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB)        PPG pulse;    -   (iv) a ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB between the relative pulse amplitude        for the UB (rAM-UB) PPG pulse and the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB);    -   (v) a pulse transit time (PTT-F) between an R wave of the ECG        and the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding F PPG        pulse; and    -   (vi) a time delay (TD) between the onset of systolic decrease        for the UB PPG pulse and the onset of systolic decrease for the        corresponding F PPG pulse; and

e) detecting the likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in theinfant if one or more of:

-   -   the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) is elevated        above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-UB) is decreased below normal;    -   the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB is decreased below normal,    -   the ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-F) is decreased below normal; or    -   the time delay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB and F is        elevated above normal.

As used in the comparisons “elevated above normal” and “decreased belownormal” the term “normal” refers to the values of the parametersobtained from infants with a closed ductus arteriosus.

As used herein, the term “upper body” (“UB”) is meant to include theportion of the body including and above the level of the arms. Examplesof skin sites that can be used, include but are not limited to, the hand(H), in particular the right hand (RH), the forehead (FH) and an earlobe(EL). Examples of sites that can be used on the foot (F) include but arenot limited to a toe (T). Preferably, PPG signals are obtained from boththe upper body and the foot (F) of the infant.

The invention also provides a system for detecting the likelihood ofpatent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in an infant comprising aphotoplethysmograph having one or more channels, one or more computingdevices comprising one or more processors, a memory unit, a displaydevice, and a computer-readable storage medium includingcomputer-readable code that is read by the one or more processors toperform a method comprising the steps of:

a) obtaining or receiving electrocardiogram (ECG) signals from theinfant;

b) obtaining or receiving photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals from asite on the upper body (UB) of the infant, and optionally from a foot(F) of the infant;

c) determining, for each PPG pulse the PPG pulse amplitude (AM) betweenthe end-diastolic maximum and the following minimum of systolic decreasefor the UB PPG pulses;

d) determining the mean of one or more of the following parameters for aplurality of the PPG pulses in the selected section:

-   -   (i) a relative pulse amplitude (rAM) by dividing the AM by the        systolic decrease minimum to obtain a rAM for the upper body        (rAM-UB) PPG pulses;    -   (ii) a pulse transit time (PTT-UB) between an R wave of the ECG        and the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding UB PPG        pulse;    -   (iii) a ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB between the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB) and the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB)        PPG pulse;    -   (iv) a ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB between the relative pulse amplitude        for the UB (rAM-UB) PPG pulse and the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB);    -   (v) a pulse transit time (PTT-F) between an R wave of the ECG        and the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding F PPG        pulse; and    -   (vi) a time delay (TD) between the onset of systolic decrease        for the UB PPG pulse and the onset of systolic decrease for the        corresponding F PPG pulse; and

e) detecting the likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in theinfant if one or more of:

-   -   the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) is elevated        above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-UB) is decreased below normal;    -   the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB is decreased below normal,    -   the ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-F) is decreased below normal; or    -   the time delay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB and F is        elevated above normal.

Also provided is a method for detecting the likelihood of a patentductus arteriosus (PDA) in an infant comprising:

a) determining from photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals from a site onthe upper body (UB) of the infant, and optionally from a foot (F) of theinfant, for each PPG pulse, the PPG pulse amplitude (AM) between theend-diastolic maximum and the following minimum of systolic decrease forthe UB PPG pulses;

b) determining the mean of one or more of the following parameters for aplurality of the PPG pulses in the selected section:

-   -   (i) a relative pulse amplitude (rAM) by dividing the AM by the        systolic decrease minimum to obtain a rAM for the upper body        (rAM-UB) PPG pulses;    -   (ii) a pulse transit time (PTT-UB) between an R wave of an        electrocardiogram (ECG) from the infant and the onset of        systolic decrease for the corresponding UB PPG pulse;    -   (iii) a ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB between the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB) and the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB)        PPG pulse;    -   (iv) a ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB between the relative pulse amplitude        for the UB (rAM-UB) PPG pulse and the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB);    -   (v) a pulse transit time (PTT-F) between an R wave of the ECG        and the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding F PPG        pulse; and    -   (vi) a time delay (TD) between the onset of systolic decrease        for the UB PPG pulse and the onset of systolic decrease for the        corresponding F PPG pulse; and

c) detecting the likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in theinfant if one or more of:

-   -   the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) is elevated        above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-UB) is decreased below normal;    -   the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB is decreased below normal,    -   the ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-F) is decreased below normal; or    -   the time delay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB and F is        elevated above normal.

Also provided is use of photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals from a siteon the upper body (UB) of an infant, and optionally from a foot (F) ofthe infant, and of electrocardiogram (ECG) signals from the infant, fordetecting the likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in theinfant by a method comprising:

a) determining, for each PPG pulse the PPG pulse amplitude (AM) betweenthe end-diastolic maximum and the following minimum of systolic decreasefor the UB PPG pulses;

b) determining the mean of one or more of the following parameters for aplurality of the PPG pulses in the selected section:

-   -   (i) a relative pulse amplitude (rAM) by dividing the AM by the        systolic decrease minimum to obtain a rAM for the upper body        (rAM-UB) PPG pulses;    -   (ii) a pulse transit time (PTT-UB) between an R wave of the ECG        and the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding UB PPG        pulse;    -   (iii) a ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB between the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB) and the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB)        PPG pulse;    -   (iv) a ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB between the relative pulse amplitude        for the UB (rAM-UB) PPG pulse and the pulse transit time        (PTT-UB);    -   (v) a pulse transit time (PTT-F) between an R wave of the ECG        and the onset of systolic decrease for the corresponding F PPG        pulse; and    -   (vi) a time delay (TD) between the onset of systolic decrease        for the UB PPG pulse and the onset of systolic decrease for the        corresponding F PPG pulse; and

c) detecting the likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in theinfant if one or more of:

-   -   the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) is elevated        above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-UB) is decreased below normal;    -   the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB is decreased below normal,    -   the ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated above normal,    -   the pulse transit time (PTT-F) is decreased below normal; or    -   the time delay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB and F is        elevated above normal.

In one embodiment, the likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) inthe infant is detected if one or more of: the relative pulse amplitudefor the UB (rAM-UB) is elevated above normal, the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB isdecreased below normal, the ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated abovenormal, or the time delay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB and F iselevated above normal.

The method can further comprise one or more steps of selecting a sectionof PPG pulses without movement noise for analysis, low-pass filteringPPG signals to reduce high frequency noise, and smoothing PPG signalsusing a moving average filter. In one embodiment, a parameter from 10-20pulses is averaged to obtain a mean.

In one embodiment, infants with a closed ductus arteriosus have a meanrAM-UB of 1.5%. In different embodiments, a rAM-UB value above 2% or2.1% or 2.2% or 2.3% or 2.4% or 2.6% is indicative that the infant haspatent ductus arteriosus (PDA). In one embodiment, a rAM-UB value abovea predetermined value in a range of 1.7% to 2.6% is indicative that theinfant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). In one embodiment, a rAM-UBvalue above a predetermined value in a range of 1.7% to 2.0% isindicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).

In one embodiment, infants with a closed ductus arteriosus have a meanPTT-UB of 69.0 ms. In one embodiment, a PTT-UB value below 55 ms isindicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). In oneembodiment, a PTT-UB value below a predetermined value in a range of 50ms to 60 ms is indicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus(PDA).

In one embodiment, infants with a closed ductus arteriosus have a meanPTT-F of 89.0 ms. In one embodiment, a PTT-F value below 80 ms isindicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). In oneembodiment, a PTT-F value below a predetermined value in a range of 70ms to 80 ms is indicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus(PDA).

In one embodiment, infants with a closed ductus arteriosus have a meanratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB of 50 ms/%. In one embodiment, a PTT-UB/rAM-UB valuebelow 30 ms/% is indicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus(PDA). In one embodiment, a PTT-UB/rAM-UB value below a predeterminedvalue in a range of 25 ms/% to 35 ms/% is indicative that the infant haspatent ductus arteriosus (PDA).

In one embodiment, infants with a closed ductus arteriosus have a meanratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB of 24%/s. In one embodiment, a rAM-UB/PTT-UB valueabove 30%/s is indicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus(PDA). In one embodiment, a rAM-UB/PTT-UB value above a predeterminedvalue in a range of 30%/s to 35%/s is indicative that the infant haspatent ductus arteriosus (PDA).

In one embodiment, infants with a closed ductus arteriosus have a meantime delay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB and F of 25 ms. In oneembodiment, an UB-F TD value above 29 ms is indicative that the infanthas patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). In one embodiment, an UB-F TD valueabove a predetermined value in a range of 29-40 ms is indicative thatthe infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).

The method can also comprise obtaining echocardiographic measurementsfrom the infant. One or more of the following parameters can be used incombination with rAM-UB or in place of rAM-UB: ratio left atriumdiameter/aorta diameter, left pulmonary artery peak end diastolicvelocity, and left ventricle shortening fraction.

Preferably, the photoplethysmograph has an infrared light source. Indifferent embodiments, the photoplethysmograph has at least twochannels.

PPG pulses can be low-pass filtered, for example, at 0-40 Hz.

PPG pulses can also be obtained from the right foot of the infant orfrom the left foot of the infant.

The non-invasive technique provided by the present invention improvesPDA diagnosis and monitoring for spontaneous closure or response tomedical therapy. A continuous display of an index that correlates withleft-to-right PDA shunting as provided by the present invention enablesa clinician to monitor the ductus arterious for spontaneous closure,response to treatment, or re-opening of a previously closed ductus.

This invention will be better understood from the Experimental Details,which follow. However, one skilled in the art will readily appreciatethat the specific methods and results discussed are merely illustrativeof the invention as described more fully in the claims that followthereafter.

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Subjects

The study was a prospective, single center study conducted in theneonatal intensive care unit of Cohen Children's Medical Center of NewYork from July 2013 to April 2015. The study was approved by theInstitutional Review Board, and parental written informed consent wasobtained prior to participant enrollment. The study population includedpreterm infants less than 32 completed weeks of gestation with a birthweight of less than 1500 grams who were diagnosed with a patent ductusarteriosus by standard echocardiography. Echocardiograms were requestedby attending neonatologists based on clinical findings. Infants wereexcluded from the study if they had congenital heart disease.

The study was conducted with infants with echo-confirmed PDA withleft-to-right R shunt that required medical or surgical treatment. AfterPDA closure, each infant served as its own control. Standard pulseoximeter probes were applied to the right hand (RH) and foot (F), andtransmission infrared PPG signals were saved to a computer for waveformanalysis. Amplitude was measured by digitally determining the maxima andminima of the systolic decrease of light transmission. Pulse transittime (PTT) (milliseconds [ms]) was determined from the R-wave of the ECGto the start of the systolic decrease of the PPG signal. Wilcoxonsigned-rank test was used to compare the relative amplitude (rAM) andPTT before and after PDA closure.

The PPG Device and Recordings

PPG recordings were obtained at the time of diagnosis and againfollowing either medical or surgical treatment. Post-operativerecordings were obtained 24 hours after the end of general anesthesiaand after discontinuation of inotropic support. The PPG waves wererecorded simultaneously with the EKG tracing. Data collected on eachinfant included the following: blood pressure; pre and post-ductaloxygen saturation (SpO₂) and echocardiographic findings.Echocardiographic variables that were recorded included the size of thePDA, PDA: LPA ratio, LPA peak end-diastolic velocity, left ventricularejection time and end diastolic volume, left atrial volume and thepresence of reversal of flow in the descending aorta.

Neonatal pulse oximeter probes (Nellcor Neonatal SpO2 sensor, Covidien,Mansfield, Mass., United States) were applied to the right hand andfoot. PPG waveforms were obtained using only the infrared light sourcein the oximeter probes, and the photodetector signals were directed tothe PPG device (Lev Academic Center, Jerusalem, Israel). The PPG signalswere low-pass filtered (0-40 Hz) to reduce high frequency noise,amplified, sampled at a rate of 1,000 samples per second with 16-bitresolution, and stored for further processing and analysis. Arepresentative example of the hand and foot PPG signals before signalprocessing is shown in FIG. 1A. Light transmission through the hand andfoot decreases during systole due to the increase in tissue bloodvolume; consequently, the maxima of the PPG signals occur atend-diastole.

Echocardiographic Measurements

The echocardiographic studies were performed using an Acuson Sequoia 512(Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Inc., Malvern, Pa.) or Philips IE 33(Philips Healthcare, Andover, Mass.). The following echocardiographicmeasurements were obtained and correlated with PPG parameters: leftatrium diameter, aortic diameter, left pulmonary artery peak enddiastolic velocity, and left ventricule shortening fraction, PDAdiameter and left pulmonary artery diameter.

Signal Analysis

In each PPG recording two regions of 10-20 PPG signals without motionartifact were selected. The hand and foot PPG signals were averaged witha 21 sample points moving average filter performed twice, serially. FIG.1B depicts the waves of FIG. 1A after smoothing. The end-diastolicmaxima and minima of systolic decrease were then digitally-identifiedand used to determine the following: pulse transit time (PTT) from thestart of the R wave peak of the EKG to the amplitude of the pulse in thehand (PTT-h) and foot (PTT-f), time delay for the start of the systolicdecrease between the foot and hand PPG pulses (f-hTD); and PPG pulseamplitude (AM), as illustrated in FIG. 2. The relative value of thelatter (rAM) was defined as AM divided by the minimum of the PPG curve(minimum of systolic decrease); this value is proportional to the tissueblood volume increase in the foot or hand, respectively, during systole(Nitzan et al., 2009).

For each infant, the mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculatedfor the 10-20 PPG pulses for the PTT for the foot (PTT-F) and hand(PTT-H), rAM for the foot (rAM-F) and hand (rAM-H) and f-hTD. Valuesthat deviated from the mean by 2SD or more (0-3 pulses for eachparameter) were discarded. The means of rAM, PTT and f-hTD for each ofthe two regions in each recording were taken as the parameter values.All data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 22. Statisticalsignificance was set at a p-value of 0.05. Results were expressed asmean±standard deviation. Statistical calculations using the pairedt-test and Wilcoxon Signed Rank tests compared PTT-H, PTT-F, rAM-F,rAM-H and f-hTD between the neonates with open and closed ductus.Intra-subject variability of PTT, rAM and f-hTD results was assessed bytaking the differences between the values of rAM , PTT and f-hTD dividedby their means.

Results and Discussion

During the study period, 20 infants had either medical or surgicaltreatment for hemodynamically significant PDA. Of the 20 infants, 16infants underwent surgical ligation and 4 infants were treatedmedically. EKG recordings were available for only 18 of the infants.Hence, rAM and f-hTD were calculated in 20 infants, but PTT whichrequires simultaneous EKG recordings were available for 18 infantsbefore and after ductal closure. The mean (SD) gestational age at birthwas 25 (1.37) weeks and the mean (SD) birthweight was 751 (172) g. Themean (SD) age at treatment was 27 (21) days and the mean (SD) weight attreatment was 1051 (520) grams. The average values for the rAM, PTT forthe hand and foot and f-hTD are presented in Table 1. The range of PTT-Hin open versus closed ductus was 47 to 72.8 ms (Mean±SD: 54.6±6.7 ms)versus 52.7 to124.8 (Mean±SD: 69.1±16.9 ms), p=0.001. Similarly, therange of PTT-F in open versus closed ductus was 62.8 to 115.42 ms(Mean±SD: 81.95±13.3 ms) versus 65.3 to 112.7 (Mean±SD: 88.8±10.76 ms),p=0.03. The rAM-H pre- and post-ductal closure ranged from 0.79 to 3.27versus 0.57 to 2.64 (Mean±SD: 2.04±0.71 vs 1.48±0.50), p=0.003. Therange of the f-hTD prior to ductal closure was 14.6 to 49.4 ms (Mean±SD:29.3±8.89 ms) and after ductal closure was 12.6 to 54.1 ms (Mean±SD:24.82±8.67 ms), p=0.03. There was no significant difference in the meanvalues of the rAM-F before and after closure of the duct. For the patentand closed ductus, the distribution of f-hTD, rAM-H, PTT-H, PTT-F andPTT-H/rAM-H are depicted with means with standard deviations as boxplotsin FIG. 3.

A summary of means and standard deviations of PTT-h, PTT-f, rAM-H, rAM-Fand f-hTD for the patent and open ductus is provided in Table 2. Tofurther differentiate the hemodynamic PPG indices before and afterductal closure, an index was calculated where the PTT-H was divided bythe rAM-H. The results are shown in Table 3. The PTT-H increases and therAM-H decreases after ductal closure and hence the index of PTT-H/rAM-Hincreases after ductal closure. PPG parameters related to PDA aresummarized in Table 4. PTT-H, PTT-F, rAM-H/PTT-H, PTT-H/rAM-H, rAM-H andTD H-F are all significantly different in preterm infants following PDAclosure.

PPG correlations with echocardiographic measurements are shown in Tables5 and 6.

The non-invasive technique provided by the present invention improvesPDA diagnosis and monitoring for spontaneous closure or response tomedical therapy. A continuous display of an index that correlates withleft-to-right PDA shunting as provided by the present invention enablesa clinician to monitor the ductus arterious for spontaneous closure,response to treatment, or re-opening of a previously closed ductus.

TABLE 1 Upper and lower values of PPG parameters with mean and standarddeviation N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Patent f-hTD 20 14.6049.40 29.30 8.89 Closed f-hTD 20 12.60 54.10 24.83 8.67 Patent rAM-H 200.79 3.27 2.04 0.71 Closed rAM-H 20 0.57 2.64 1.48 0.50 Patent rAM-F 200.95 4.82 1.98 0.91 Closed rAM-F 20 0.39 3.62 1.61 0.88 Patent rAM f/h20 0.61 2.13 1.04 0.47 Closed rAM f/h 20 0.47 3.10 1.11 0.60 PatentPTT-H 18 47.00 72.88 54.59 6.68 Closed PTT-H 18 52.70 124.48 69.12 16.88Patent PTT-F 18 62.80 115.42 81.95 13.31 Closed PTT-F 18 65.30 112.7088.80 10.76

TABLE 2 Summary of mean & standard deviation of PTT-h, PTT-f, rAM-H,rAM-F, f-hTD PTT-h PTT-f rAM-h rAM-f h-fTD PATENT 54.6 ± 6.7 ms 81.94 ±13.31 ms 2.04 ± 0.71% 1.97 ± 0.91% 29.31 ± 8.89 ms CLOSED 69.1 ± 16.9 ms88.8 ± 10.76 ms 1.48 ± 0.5% 1.61 ± 0.88% 24.83 ± 8.67 ms p-value 0.0010.03 0.003 0.07 0.03

TABLE 3 Ratio Predictors of Patent Ductus Arterious (PDA) (Mean valuesand SD) p- PATENT CLOSED DELTA VALUE rAM-RH  2.04 ± 0.71%  1.48 ± 0.5% −0.56 P = 0.003 PTT-RH  54.6 ± 6.7 ms  69.1 ± 16.9 ms   14.5 p = 0.001PTT-RH/ 28.34 ± 10.54 ms/% 50.89 ± 26.91 ms/%   22.56 p = rAM-RH 0.003rAM-RH/ 39.99 ± 14.17%/s 24.11 ± 10.44%/s −15.89 p = PTT-RH 0.0003rAM-RH: relative pulse amplitude for the right hand; PTT-RH: pulsetransit time to the right hand.

TABLE 4 Changes in PPG Parameters after Closure of Ductus ArteriosusrAM-H p = 0.003 Decreased relative amplitude (rAM) in the hand (H) PTT-Hp = 0.001 Increased pulse transit time (PTT) from the heart to the handPTT-F p = 0.03 Increased pulse transit time from the heart to the foot(F) TD H-F p = 0.03 Decreased time delay (TD) from hand to foot PTT-H/ p= 0.003 Increased ratio of pulse transit time from the heart to rAM-Hthe hand/relative amplitude in the hand rAM-H/ p = 0.0003 Decreasedratio of relative amplitude in the hand to PTT-H the pulse transit timefrom the heart to the hand

TABLE 5 Echocardiographic characteristic of PDA Variables Mean ± SD Sizeof the PDA 2.99 ± 0.83 Restrictive/Non Restrictive 100% non restrictivePDA: Left Pulmonary Artery (LPA) 0.89 ± 0.09 Reversal in descendingaorta 100% LPA peak end-diastolic velocity 0.47 ± 0.15 m/sec LeftAtrium: Aorta (LA: Ao) diameter 1.38 ± 0.48

TABLE 6 PPG Correlations with Echocardiographic Measurements in Infantswith PDA (Pearson) Left atrium diameter/Aorta diameter: rAM-F/H r =0.482 p = 0.037 Left atrium diameter/Aorta diameter: rAM-F r = 0.495 p =0.031 Left Pulmonary Artery peak end diastolic r = 0.538 p = 0.014velocity: rAM-H Left Ventricle Shortening Fraction: rAM-F/H r = 0.559 p= 0.030 Left Ventricle Shortening Fraction: rAM-F r = 0.539 p = 0.038Left Ventricle Shortening Fraction: Rw-F/rAM-F r = 0.488 p = 0.077 PDAdiameter: no correlation with PPG parameters PDA diameter/left pulmonaryartery diameter: no correlation with PPG parameters

REFERENCES

-   1. Allen J. Photoplethysmography and its application in clinical    physiological measurement. Physiol Meas. 2007 March; 28(3):R1-39.    Epub 2007 February 20.-   2. Elgendi M. On the analysis of fingertip photoplethysmogram    signals. Curr Cardiol Rev. 2012 February; 8(1):14-25.-   3. El Hajjar M, Vaksmann G, Rakza T, Kongolo G, Storme L. Severity    of the ductal shunt: a comparison of different markers. Arch Dis    Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2005 September; 90(5):F419-22.-   4. Evans N, Iyer Parvathi. Longitudinal changes in the diameter of    the ductus arteriosus in ventilated preterm infants:correlation with    respiratory outcomes. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1995; 72:    F156-F161.-   5. Evans N et al. Diagnosis of the preterm patent ductus arteriosus:    clinical signs, biomarkers, or ultrasound? Semin Perinatol. 2012a    April; 36(2):114-22.-   6. Evans N et al. Preterm patent ductus arteriosus: should we treat    it? J Paediatr Child Health. 2012b September; 48(9):753-8.-   7. Goudjil S, et al. Noninvasive technique for the diagnosis of    patent ductus arteriosus in premature infants by analyzing pulse    wave phases on photoplethysmography signals measured in the right    hand and the left foot. PLOS ONE June 2014, Vol. 9, issue 6, e98763,    9 pages.-   8. Kluckow M, Evans N. Early echocardiographic prediction of    symptomatic patent ductus arteriosus in preterm infants undergoing    mechanical ventilation. J Pediatr. 1995 November; 127(5):774-9.-   9. McNamara P J, Sehgal A. Towards rational management of the patent    ductus arteriosus: the need for disease staging. Arch Dis Child    Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2007 November; 92(6):F424-7.-   10. Nitzan M., A. Babchenko, B. Khanokh and D. Landau. The    variability of the photoplethysmographic signal—A potential method    for the evaluation of the autonomic nervous system. Physiol. Meas.    1998, 19: 93-102.-   11. Nitzan, M., Patron, A., Glik, Z., et al. Automatic noninvasive    measurement of systolic blood pressure using photoplethysmography.    BioMedical Engineering OnLine, 8: 28, 2009.-   12. Noori S. Patent ductus arteriosus in the preterm infant: to    treat or not to treat? Journal of Perinatology (2010) 30, S31-S37.-   13. Oishi, M., Hishida, H., Kabe, K. and Hoshi, J. Monitoring    neonatal peripheral circulation by electrocardiogram-to-oximeter    pulse velocity. Pediatr. Res. 1993 33:653-57.-   14. Sahni R. Noninvasive monitoring by photoplethysmography. Clin    Perinatol. 2012 September; 39(3):573-83.-   15. Sehgal A, McNamara P J. The ductus arteriosus: a refined    approach! Semin Perinatol. 2012 April; 36(2):105-13.-   16. Silverman N H, Lewis A B, Heymann M A, Rudolph A M.    Echocardiographic Assessment of Ductus Arteriosus Shunt in Premature    Infants. Circulation. 1974; 50:821-825.

1-27. (canceled)
 28. A system for detecting the likelihood of patentductus arteriosus (PDA) in an infant comprising a photoplethysmographhaving one or more channels, one or more computing devices comprisingone or more processors, a memory unit, a display device, and acomputer-readable storage medium including computer-readable code thatis read by the one or more processors to perform a method comprising thesteps of: a) obtaining or receiving electrocardiogram (ECG) signals fromthe infant; b) obtaining or receiving photoplethysmographic (PPG)signals from a site on the upper body (UB) of the infant, and optionallyfrom a foot (F) of the infant; c) determining, for each PPG pulse thePPG pulse amplitude (AM) between the end-diastolic maximum and thefollowing minimum of systolic decrease for the UB PPG pulses; d)determining the mean of one or more of the following parameters for aplurality of the PPG pulses in the selected section: (i) a relativepulse amplitude (rAM) by dividing the AM by the systolic decreaseminimum to obtain a rAM for the upper body (rAM-UB) PPG pulses; (ii) apulse transit time (PTT-UB) between an R wave of the ECG and the onsetof systolic decrease for the corresponding UB PPG pulse; (iii) a ratioPTT-UB/rAM-UB between the pulse transit time (PTT-UB) and the relativepulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) PPG pulse; (iv) a ratiorAM-UB/PTT-UB between the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB)PPG pulse and the pulse transit time (PTT-UB); (v) a pulse transit time(PTT-F) between an R wave of the ECG and the onset of systolic decreasefor the corresponding F PPG pulse; and (vi) a time delay (TD) betweenthe onset of systolic decrease for the UB PPG pulse and the onset ofsystolic decrease for the corresponding F PPG pulse; and e) detectingthe likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in the infant if oneor more of: the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) is elevatedabove normal, the pulse transit time (PTT-UB) is decreased below normal;the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB is decreased below normal, the ratiorAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated above normal, the pulse transit time (PTT-F)is decreased below normal; or the time delay (TD) of PPG pulses betweenthe UB and F is elevated above normal.
 29. The system of claim 28,wherein the steps further comprise one or more of selecting a section ofPPG pulses without movement noise for analysis, low-pass filtering PPGsignals to reduce high frequency noise, and smoothing PPG signals usinga moving average filter.
 30. The system of claim 28, wherein thephotoplethysmograph has an infrared light source.
 31. The system ofclaim 28, wherein in step d) a parameter from 10-20 pulses is averagedto obtain a mean.
 32. The system of claim 28, wherein UB PPG signals areobtained or received from the right hand of the infant.
 33. The systemof claim 28, wherein UB PPG signals are obtained or received from theforehead or an earlobe of the infant.
 34. The system of claim 28,wherein PPG signals are obtained or received from both the upper bodyand a foot (F) of the infant.
 35. The system of claim 28, wherein thelikelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) in the infant is detectedif one or more of: the relative pulse amplitude for the UB (rAM-UB) iselevated above normal, the ratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB is decreased belownormal, the ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB is elevated above normal, or the timedelay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB and F is elevated above normal.36-37. (canceled)
 38. The system of claim 28, wherein infants with aclosed ductus arteriosus have a mean rAM-UB of 1.5%.
 39. The system ofclaim 28, wherein a rAM-UB value above 2% is indicative that the infanthas patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
 40. The system of claim 28, whereina rAM-UB value above a predetermined value in a range of 1.7% to 2.6% isindicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
 41. Thesystem of claim 28, wherein infants with a closed ductus arteriosus havea mean PTT-UB of 69.0 ms.
 42. The system of claim 28, wherein a PTT-UBvalue below 55 ms is indicative that the infant has patent ductusarteriosus (PDA).
 43. The system of claim 28, wherein a PTT-UB valuebelow a predetermined value in a range of 50 ms to 60 ms is indicativethat the infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
 44. The system ofclaim 28, wherein infants with a closed ductus arteriosus have a meanratio PTT-UB/rAM-UB of 50 ms/%.
 45. The system of claim 28, wherein aPTT-UB/rAM-UB value below 30 ms/% is indicative that the infant haspatent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
 46. The system of claim 28, wherein aPTT-UB/rAM-UB value below a predetermined value in a range of 25 ms/% to35 ms/% is indicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus(PDA).
 47. The system of claim 28, wherein infants with a closed ductusarteriosus have a mean ratio rAM-UB/PTT-UB of 24%/s.
 48. The system ofclaim 28, wherein a rAM-UB/PTT-UB value above 30%/s is indicative thatthe infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
 49. The system of claim28, wherein a rAM-UB/PTT-UB value above a predetermined value in a rangeof 30%/s to 35%/s is indicative that the infant has patent ductusarteriosus (PDA).
 50. The system of claim 28, wherein infants with aclosed ductus arteriosus have a mean PTT-F of 89.0 ms.
 51. The system ofclaim 28, wherein a PTT-F value below 80 ms is indicative that theinfant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
 52. The system of claim 28,wherein a PTT-F value below a predetermined value in a range of 70 ms to80 ms is indicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).53. The system of claim 28, wherein infants with a closed ductusarteriosus have a mean time delay (TD) of PPG pulses between the UB andF of 25 ms.
 54. The system of claim 28, wherein an UB-F TD value above29 ms is indicative that the infant has patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).55. The system of claim 28, wherein an UB-F TD value above apredetermined value in a range of 29-40 ms is indicative that the infanthas patent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
 56. The system of claim 28, furthercomprising obtaining or receiving echocardiographic measurements fromthe infant and using one or more of the following parameters incombination with rAM-UB or in place of rAM-UB: ratio left atriumdiameter/aorta diameter, left pulmonary artery peak end diastolicvelocity, and left ventricle shortening fraction.